Lightning, the Science. Part 1: Modern View
Keywords:
lightning, thunderclouds, charge structure, rocket-triggered lightning, negative cloud-to-ground lightning, lightning processes
Abstract
Lightning can be defined as a transient, high-current (typically tens of kA) electric discharge in air whose length is measured in km. As for any discharge in air, lightning channel is composed of ionized gas, that is, of plasma, whose peak temperature is typically 30,000 K, about five times higher than the temperature of the surface of the Sun. Lightning was present on Earth long before human life evolved and it may even have played a crucial role in the evolution of life on our planet. The global lightning flash rate is some tens to a hundred km per second. Each year, some 25 million cloud-to-ground lightning discharges occur in the United States, and this number is expected to increase by about 50% due to global warming over the 21st century. Lightning initiates many forest fires, and over 30% of all electric power line failures are lightning related. Each commercial aircraft is struck by lightning on average once a year. A lightning strike to an unprotected object or system can be catastrophic. In the first part of the article, an overview of thunderclouds and their charge structure is given, basic lightning terminology is introduced, and different types of lightning (including the so-called rocket-triggered lightning) are described. For the most common negative cloud-to-ground lightning, main lightning processes are identified and the existing hypotheses of lightning initiation in thunderclouds are reviewed.
References
1. Moore C.B., Vonnegut B. The thundercloud. In Lightning, ed. R.H. Golde, Physics of Lightning, New York: Academic Press, 1977, vol. 1, pp. 51–98.
2. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Thun-derstorms. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.1998. 422 p.
3. Williams E.R. Meteorological aspects of thunderstorms. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.1995. vol. 1., pp. 27–60.
4. Krehbiel P.R. The electrical structure of thunderstorms. In the Earth’s Electrical Environment, eds. E.P. Krider and R.G. Roble. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986. pp. 90–113.
5. Jayaratne E.R., Saunders C.P.R., Hallett J. Laboratory studies of the charging of soft-hail during ice crystal interactions. – Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 1983, vol.109 (461), pp. 609–630, DOI:10.1002/qj.49710946111.
6. Hendry J. Panning for lightning (including comments on the photos by M.A. Uman). Weatherwise, 1993, 45(6): 19.
7. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge, Mineola, New York: Dover, 2001, 377 p.
8. Krider E.P., Weidman C.D., Noggle R.C. The electric field produced by lightning stepped leaders. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1977, vol.82, pp. 951–960.
9. Nag A., Rakov V.A. Some inferences on the role of lower positive charge region in facilitating different types of lightning. – Geophysical Research Letter, 2009. vol. 36, L05815, doi:10.1029/2008GL036783.
10. Rakov V.A., Tran M.D. The breakthrough phase of lightning attachment process: From collision of opposite-polarity streamers to hot-channel connection. – Electric Power Systems Research, 2019, vol. 173, pp. 122–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2019.03.018.
11. Wang D., Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Takagi N., et al. Attachment process in rocket-triggered lightning strokes. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1999, vol.10, pp. 2143–2150.
12. Rakov V. A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003, 687 p.
13. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Rambo K.J., et al. New insights into lightning processes gained from triggered-lightning experiments in Florida and Alabama. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1998, vol. 103, No. 14, pp. 117–130.
14. Brook M., Armstrong G., Winder R.P.H., Vonnegut B., Moore C.B. Artificial initiation of lightning discharges. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1961, vol. 66, pp. 3967–3969.
15. Fisher R.J., Schnetzer G.H., Morris M.E. Measured fields and earth potentials at 10 and 20 meters from the base of triggered-lightning channels. – 22nd Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Budapest, Hungary, 1994 Paper R 1c-10, 6 p.
16. Horii K., Nakano M. Artificially triggered lightning. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 1995, vol. 1, pp. 151–166.
17. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A. The physics of lightning. – Physics Reports, 2014, vol. 534, pp. 147–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2013.09.004.
18. Qie X., Zhang Y. A Review of Atmospheric Electricity Research in China from 2011 to 2018. – Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, 2019, vol. 36(9), pp. 994–1014, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-019-8195-x.
#
1. Moore C.B., Vonnegut B. The thundercloud. In Lightning, ed. R.H. Golde, Physics of Lightning, New York: Academic Press, 1977, vol. 1, pp. 51–98.
2. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Thun-derstorms. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.1998. 422 p.
3. Williams E.R. Meteorological aspects of thunderstorms. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.1995. vol. 1., pp. 27–60.
4. Krehbiel P.R. The electrical structure of thunderstorms. In the Earth’s Electrical Environment, eds. E.P. Krider and R.G. Roble. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986. pp. 90–113.
5. Jayaratne E.R., Saunders C.P.R., Hallett J. Laboratory studies of the charging of soft-hail during ice crystal interactions. – Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 1983, vol.109 (461), pp. 609–630, DOI:10.1002/qj.49710946111.
6. Hendry J. Panning for lightning (including comments on the photos by M.A. Uman). Weatherwise, 1993, 45(6): 19.
7. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge, Mineola, New York: Dover, 2001, 377 p.
8. Krider E.P., Weidman C.D., Noggle R.C. The electric field produced by lightning stepped leaders. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1977, vol.82, pp. 951–960.
9. Nag A., Rakov V.A. Some inferences on the role of lower positive charge region in facilitating different types of lightning. – Geophysical Research Letter, 2009. vol. 36, L05815, doi:10.1029/2008GL036783.
10. Rakov V.A., Tran M.D. The breakthrough phase of lightning attachment process: From collision of opposite-polarity streamers to hot-channel connection. – Electric Power Systems Research, 2019, vol. 173, pp. 122–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2019.03.018.
11. Wang D., Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Takagi N., et al. Attachment process in rocket-triggered lightning strokes. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1999, vol.10, pp. 2143–2150.
12. Rakov V. A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003, 687 p.
13. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Rambo K.J., et al. New insights into lightning processes gained from triggered-lightning experiments in Florida and Alabama. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1998, vol. 103, No. 14, pp. 117–130.
14. Brook M., Armstrong G., Winder R.P.H., Vonnegut B., Moore C.B. Artificial initiation of lightning discharges. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1961, vol. 66, pp. 3967–3969.
15. Fisher R.J., Schnetzer G.H., Morris M.E. Measured fields and earth potentials at 10 and 20 meters from the base of triggered-lightning channels. – 22nd Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Budapest, Hungary, 1994 Paper R 1c-10, 6 p.
16. Horii K., Nakano M. Artificially triggered lightning. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 1995, vol. 1, pp. 151–166.
17. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A. The physics of lightning. – Physics Reports, 2014, vol. 534, pp. 147–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2013.09.004.
18. Qie X., Zhang Y. A Review of Atmospheric Electricity Research in China from 2011 to 2018. – Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, 2019, vol. 36(9), pp. 994–1014, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-019-8195-x.
2. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Thun-derstorms. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.1998. 422 p.
3. Williams E.R. Meteorological aspects of thunderstorms. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.1995. vol. 1., pp. 27–60.
4. Krehbiel P.R. The electrical structure of thunderstorms. In the Earth’s Electrical Environment, eds. E.P. Krider and R.G. Roble. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986. pp. 90–113.
5. Jayaratne E.R., Saunders C.P.R., Hallett J. Laboratory studies of the charging of soft-hail during ice crystal interactions. – Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 1983, vol.109 (461), pp. 609–630, DOI:10.1002/qj.49710946111.
6. Hendry J. Panning for lightning (including comments on the photos by M.A. Uman). Weatherwise, 1993, 45(6): 19.
7. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge, Mineola, New York: Dover, 2001, 377 p.
8. Krider E.P., Weidman C.D., Noggle R.C. The electric field produced by lightning stepped leaders. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1977, vol.82, pp. 951–960.
9. Nag A., Rakov V.A. Some inferences on the role of lower positive charge region in facilitating different types of lightning. – Geophysical Research Letter, 2009. vol. 36, L05815, doi:10.1029/2008GL036783.
10. Rakov V.A., Tran M.D. The breakthrough phase of lightning attachment process: From collision of opposite-polarity streamers to hot-channel connection. – Electric Power Systems Research, 2019, vol. 173, pp. 122–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2019.03.018.
11. Wang D., Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Takagi N., et al. Attachment process in rocket-triggered lightning strokes. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1999, vol.10, pp. 2143–2150.
12. Rakov V. A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003, 687 p.
13. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Rambo K.J., et al. New insights into lightning processes gained from triggered-lightning experiments in Florida and Alabama. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1998, vol. 103, No. 14, pp. 117–130.
14. Brook M., Armstrong G., Winder R.P.H., Vonnegut B., Moore C.B. Artificial initiation of lightning discharges. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1961, vol. 66, pp. 3967–3969.
15. Fisher R.J., Schnetzer G.H., Morris M.E. Measured fields and earth potentials at 10 and 20 meters from the base of triggered-lightning channels. – 22nd Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Budapest, Hungary, 1994 Paper R 1c-10, 6 p.
16. Horii K., Nakano M. Artificially triggered lightning. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 1995, vol. 1, pp. 151–166.
17. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A. The physics of lightning. – Physics Reports, 2014, vol. 534, pp. 147–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2013.09.004.
18. Qie X., Zhang Y. A Review of Atmospheric Electricity Research in China from 2011 to 2018. – Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, 2019, vol. 36(9), pp. 994–1014, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-019-8195-x.
#
1. Moore C.B., Vonnegut B. The thundercloud. In Lightning, ed. R.H. Golde, Physics of Lightning, New York: Academic Press, 1977, vol. 1, pp. 51–98.
2. MacGorman D.R., Rust W.D. The Electrical Nature of Thun-derstorms. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.1998. 422 p.
3. Williams E.R. Meteorological aspects of thunderstorms. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.1995. vol. 1., pp. 27–60.
4. Krehbiel P.R. The electrical structure of thunderstorms. In the Earth’s Electrical Environment, eds. E.P. Krider and R.G. Roble. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1986. pp. 90–113.
5. Jayaratne E.R., Saunders C.P.R., Hallett J. Laboratory studies of the charging of soft-hail during ice crystal interactions. – Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 1983, vol.109 (461), pp. 609–630, DOI:10.1002/qj.49710946111.
6. Hendry J. Panning for lightning (including comments on the photos by M.A. Uman). Weatherwise, 1993, 45(6): 19.
7. Uman M.A. The Lightning Discharge, Mineola, New York: Dover, 2001, 377 p.
8. Krider E.P., Weidman C.D., Noggle R.C. The electric field produced by lightning stepped leaders. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1977, vol.82, pp. 951–960.
9. Nag A., Rakov V.A. Some inferences on the role of lower positive charge region in facilitating different types of lightning. – Geophysical Research Letter, 2009. vol. 36, L05815, doi:10.1029/2008GL036783.
10. Rakov V.A., Tran M.D. The breakthrough phase of lightning attachment process: From collision of opposite-polarity streamers to hot-channel connection. – Electric Power Systems Research, 2019, vol. 173, pp. 122–134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2019.03.018.
11. Wang D., Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Takagi N., et al. Attachment process in rocket-triggered lightning strokes. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1999, vol.10, pp. 2143–2150.
12. Rakov V. A., Uman M.A. Lightning: Physics and Effects. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003, 687 p.
13. Rakov V.A., Uman M.A., Rambo K.J., et al. New insights into lightning processes gained from triggered-lightning experiments in Florida and Alabama. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1998, vol. 103, No. 14, pp. 117–130.
14. Brook M., Armstrong G., Winder R.P.H., Vonnegut B., Moore C.B. Artificial initiation of lightning discharges. – Journal of Geophysical Research, 1961, vol. 66, pp. 3967–3969.
15. Fisher R.J., Schnetzer G.H., Morris M.E. Measured fields and earth potentials at 10 and 20 meters from the base of triggered-lightning channels. – 22nd Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Budapest, Hungary, 1994 Paper R 1c-10, 6 p.
16. Horii K., Nakano M. Artificially triggered lightning. In Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, ed. H. Volland, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press, 1995, vol. 1, pp. 151–166.
17. Dwyer J.R., Uman M.A. The physics of lightning. – Physics Reports, 2014, vol. 534, pp. 147–241, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2013.09.004.
18. Qie X., Zhang Y. A Review of Atmospheric Electricity Research in China from 2011 to 2018. – Advances in Atmospheric Sciences, 2019, vol. 36(9), pp. 994–1014, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-019-8195-x.
